Citatio: B. Christiansen (ed.), hethiter.net/: HDivT (31-07-2024)

Introduction

The text corpus | Previous research | Project objectives

The text corpus and its significance

Like in other ancient civilizations, divination held a key role in the Hittite Kingdom. Exploring the will and mood of the gods, whether through direct questioning or through the observation and interpretation of signs believed to be divine messages, was considered crucial in a variety of events and areas of life. Whether it was for planning a campaign, appointing a new king, or determining the cause of a crisis, the service of divination experts was called upon.

This important role is reflected in the large number and character of the divinatory texts that came down to us from the Hittite Kingdom, which emerged in central Anatolia in the 16th century BCE, extended over large parts of Anatolia and northern Syria throughout the second half of the 14th century and during the 13th century, and ended at the beginning of the 12th century BCE. Most texts have been found in the Hittite capital Ḫattuša in Central Anatolia, but there are also some that have been discovered in provincial centers, namely Kuşaklı (Šarišša), Kayalıpınar (Šamuha), Uşaklı and Maşat (Tapikka) in Central Anatolia as well as Açana (Alalakh) and Meskene (Emar) in Syria.

With more than 1750 mostly fragmentarily preserved clay tablets inscribed with cuneiform script, the corpus of divinatory texts is the third largest group of religious texts among the Hittite written sources, only outnumbered by the corpus of festival texts and incantation rituals. Most of these texts date from the so-called Empire period (or the New Kingdom) which spanned from the middle of the 14th to the end of the 13th century BCE. There are, however, also some texts dating from the Middle Hittite period (ca. 1460–1350 BCE), such as the oracle letters from Maşat Höyük (Tapikka).

The texts document a variety of divinatory practices, some of which are of Anatolian origin, while others were adopted from neighboring regions. Particularly, the oracle reports written in the Hittite language are unparalleled in any other ancient civilization and are extant in large numbers. Many texts have come down to us in a very fragmentary state, but there are also some well-preserved reports of extensive oracle inquiries. Since these inquiries often deal with misconduct and conflicts that are otherwise obscured or presented in a biased manner, they are an extremely important source both for historical research and the understanding of Hittite religious ideas and moral concepts. Similarly, reports of oracle inquiries concerning military campaigns offer insights into the planning, course, and results of campaigns that are not addressed in other texts. Oracle letters, dream reports, and omen texts, the latter of which are of Mesopotamian origin, are also of great significance. Letters referring to oracle procedures are also an interesting source, as are dream reports, which are often linked to vows.

The omen texts of Mesopotamian origin found at Ḫattuša represent the largest and most significant collection of omens dating back to the second millennium, from which only a few omen texts have survived from Mesopotamia proper. The texts, which are written in the Akkadian, Hittite, or Hurrian language, reflect the thorough concern of the Hittites for the Mesopotamian omen tradition and provide crucial insight into the transfer of knowledge between different regions of the ancient Near East. Along with omen texts discovered in Syria and northern Mesopotamia, the corpus handed down from Ḫattuša is a key component in the reconstruction of the long history of Mesopotamian omen traditions, which crystallized in the canonical series known to us only from manuscripts of the first millennium BCE.

Previous research

Despite their great importance to Ancient Near Eastern Studies and cross-cultural research, the Hittite divinatory texts are the least studied Hittite text corpus. The vast majority of the Hittite divinatory texts are accessible through photographs published in the Hethitische Konkordanz on the HPM platform and hand copies (i.e., technical drawings) mainly in the series Keilschrifturkunden aus Boghazköi (KUB) and Keilschrifturkunden aus Boğazköy (KBo). Furthermore, many texts are available in full or partial transliterations and/or translations. However, only a few texts are available in complete critical editions, and many of those editions are out of date. Moreover, many studies on the oracle reports are master’s, doctoral, or habilitation theses, with only a few being accessible to the public in the versions submitted to the university (Sakuma Y. 2009b, Marcuson H. 2016a). Riemschneider’s habilitation thesis on the omen texts of Mesopotamian origin (Riemschneider K.K. n.d.); remained unfinished due to his unexpected death in 1976 and was published 30 years later with only some minor revisions to the manuscript stored at the LMU Munich (Riemschneider K.K. 2004a).

Riemschneider K.K. 1970a also published an edition of the Hittite translations of Babylonian birth omens. De Vos A. 2013a published a recent edition of the liver models, while Mouton A. 2015b published a further edition shortly thereafter. Other types of omen texts were published by Fincke (Fincke J.C. 2004a; Fincke J.C. 2009; Fincke J.C. 2010a; Fincke J.C. 2011a).

Regarding the Hittite oracle texts subsumed under CTH 561–582, philological treatments have been carried out on some larger and better-preserved texts relating to specific occasions, such as festivals, cultic neglect, or military campaigns. Many of these studies only contain transliterations and/or translations of the text or individual text passages. Complete editions are only available for a small number of texts, and these are often out of date, as are the transliterations, translations, and partial studies.

These publications include Ünal’s edition of the oracle concerning the king’s campaigns in the Kaskaean Region” (KUB 5.1+ CTH 561.2; Ünal A. 1974a, 129–133; Ünal A. 1974b 32–102) and Archi’s partial treatment of the oracle report concerning the king’s winter stay KUB 5.3+ (CTH 563.1; Archi A. 1974a, 141–142; Archi A. 1982a, 283–285). An English translation of KUB 5.1+ was provided by Beal R.H. 1997a, who also published an English translation of KUB 5.4+ (CTH 563.2) and parts of the partially parallel text KUB 5.3+ (CTH 563.1; Beal R.H. 1997a).

A full edition of the oracle report concerning the wrath of the deity of Arusna (KUB 22.70+, CTH 566), was published by Ünal A. 1978a, a partial English translation was published by Beckman G. 1997f.; Lebrun R. 1994a edited the main texts of the oracle reports on the celebration of various festivals (CTH 568), further fragments were treated by Nakamura M. 1995a.

One of the oracle reports concerning the cult of the deity Pirwa (KBo 14.21, CTH 565) was edited by Imparati F. 1990a, 187–187, while Hout Th.P.J. van den 1998c has provided an edition of the oracle texts concerning Arma-Tarḫunta and Šaušgatti (CTH 569).

Partial editions of the oracles referring to specific occasions can be found in studies that focus on individual divination techniques, such as augury or the so-called KIN oracle, which operates with various symbols. For example, the studies of Archi A. 1975e, 122–124 and Sakuma Y. 2009b, II, 183–202 on the bird oracles include editions of selected passages of the oracle report concerning the king’s winter stay in Ḫattuša for the celebration of the festival for the Storm-god of Aleppo (KUB 18.12+, CTH 564).

Only a few of the texts that are classified in CTH with respect to the oracle techniques employed (CTH 570–582) have been edited thus far. Among these are the so-called “unabbreviated liver oracles” (CTH 571), published by Schuol M. 1994a and Beckman G. − Bryce T. − Cline E. 2011a, 220–233 which, along with KBo 18.151 (CTH 827), edited by Ünal A. - Kammenhuber A. 1974a and Marcuson H. 2016a, 164–170), constitute essentially the entire corpus from the pre-Empire period (predating the 13th century). Sakuma Y. 2009b, I and II concentrates on the bird oracles (CTH 573). Sakuma also considers oracles that combine several techniques (CTH 579–580), but confines himself to the passages relating to augury. The unique Hittite instruction on bird oracles (CTH 557) was edited by Archi A. 1975e, 126–127 and Sakuma Y. 2009b, II, 457–458.

Several studies by Warbinek, including his PhD thesis, focus on the Hittite KIN oracle (Warbinek L. 2017a; Warbinek L. 2019a; Warbinek L. 2019b; Warbinek L. 2020a). Apart from texts that exclusively record KIN oracles (CTH 572), Warbinek L. 2020a also includes passages of texts in which KIN oracles are combined with other techniques (CTH 577, 578, 580). However, as is the case with Sakuma Y. 2009b, this approach largely neglects the relationships between the different techniques and their interaction within the respective procedure. The PhD thesis by Marcuson H. 2016a on the so-called “Old Women” (MUNUSŠU.GIMEŠ), who appear both as experts of the KIN oracle and as experts in magic rituals, offers editions of selected KIN oracles. Tognon’s unpublished PhD thesis (Tognon R. 2005) focuses on the oracle technique utilizing a “ḪURRI bird”, possibly a rock partridge (CTH 574). The study considers, however, only a selection of well-preserved texts, sometimes dependent on outdated editions. The “snake oracles” (CTH 575) have been treated by Laroche E. 1958band Lefevre-Novaro D. – Mouton A. 2008a. Moreover, some selected texts have been edited because of their political or social relevance. For example, Hout Th.P.J. van den 1998c edited various texts relating to political matters during the reign of Tutḫaliya IV.

Editions of the oracular texts from Kuşaklı / Sarissa have been published by Haas V. - Wegner I. 1996a; Wilhelm G. 2004g, 112–113 and Wilhelm G. 2007b, 25–27, some further texts have been edited by Marcuson H. 2016a. For the texts from Kayalıpınar / Samuha see; Rieken E. 2006c; Rieken E. 2009a; Rieken E. 2014c; Rieken E. 2019a and Miller J.L. 2019a for the ones from Uşaklı see Corti C. 2010b; Corti C. 2010c and Archi A. – Corti C. – Pecchioli-Daddi F. – Torri G. 2016a.

Editions of the texts from Maşat have been published by Alp S. 1991b; H.A. 2009a; Marizza M. 2009a and Sakuma Y. 2009b, II. For the texts from Açana / Alalakh see Prechel D. 2016a, for the ones from Meskene / Emar see Salvini M. – Trémouille M.-C. 2003a.

The state of research on the dream and vow texts (CTH 583–586 and CTH 590) also differs from case to case. The “King’s Dreams” (CTH 583) have been edited by Roos J. de 2007a and Roos J. de 2007b, and a partial edition has been published by Mouton A. 2007a. Most of the texts subsumed under CTH 584 (“Dreams of the Queen”) and CTH 590 (‟Fragments of the Dream and Vow Texts”) are also available in editions or transliterations (e.g., Hout Th.P.J. van den 1994c, 305–327; Roos J. de 2007a; Roos J. de 2007b; Mouton A. 2007a; Groddek D. 2010d; Groddek D. 2011a; Groddek D. 2012b; Groddek D. 2014a; Groddek D. 2015a; Groddek D. et al. 2002a. However, the fragments booked under CTH 586 as well as most of the fragments subsumed under CTH 585 (“vows of Puduḫepa‟) are still unedited.

A first study of the ca. 50 Hurrian language omens and oracle texts (CTH 774) has been presented by Martino S. de 1992a. Due to our limited knowledge of the Hurrian language these texts are still poorly understood.

Initial studies concerning writing and writing media as well as the language and cultural background of the texts have been carried out by Schuol M. 1994a; Wilhelm G. 2004g; De Vos A. 2013a; Fincke J.C. 2004a and Schwemer D. 2014a.

Studies on the social position and tasks of the augurs have been published by Imparati F. 1985a; Imparati F. 1988b and Hazenbos J. 2007a; studies on the so-called ‟Old Women”, who appear both as oracle and ritual experts, have been carried out by Bawanypeck D. 2005a and Marcuson H. 2016a. Research on oracular techniques was carried out, e.g., by Orlamünde J. 2001b; Sakuma Y. 2009b, I; and Warbinek L. 2020a. The political and historical as well as religious-historical backgrounds are the subject of studies by Ünal A. 1978a; Orlamünde J. 2001a; Beal R.H. 2002c; Prechel D. 2016a; and Anthonioz S. – Mouton A. – Petit D. 2019b. However, these studies only refer to selected texts or specific aspects of certain texts and text groups.

Furthermore, there is a significant lack of in-depth studies targeting both Hittitologists and a broader audience. The short encyclopedia entries by Hout Th.P.J. van den 2003d and Hout Th.P.J. van den 2003e and the now outdated monograph by Kammenhuber A. 1976c, are primarily intended for Hittitologists and scholars of Ancient Near Eastern Studies. The articles by Beal R.H. 2002f and Schwemer D. 2002b address a broader audience but only provide very brief overviews. The monograph by Haas V. 2008a is more extensive but leaves many central questions untouched. This situation has also negative consequences for cross-cultural studies on divination. While sources from ancient Greece, Rome, and Mesopotamia are frequently used for comparison, this is far less the case with the Hittite evidence. The increased attention that divinatory texts have received in various academic disciplines over the past 30 years has, therefore, largely ignored the Hittite sources.

Objectives of the project

In light of the crucial role and limited research on the Hittite divinatory texts, our project’s primary goal is to make the corpus of Hittite divinatory texts accessible to both scholars of Ancient Near Eastern Studies and to a wider interdisciplinary audience. A key component of this is an open-access, lexically and grammatically annotated, and searchable digital corpus of the texts on the platform Hethitologie-Portal Mainz (HPM). Additionally, some better-preserved and more yielding texts will be published in print. These editions provide the foundation for in-depth studies on graphical, linguistic, and content-related issues, which will be subsequently published in articles and books. By the end of the project, the key findings will be brought together in a comprehensive monograph. In addition, our objective is to encourage interdisciplinary collaboration and establish the groundwork for comparing divinatory practices across different regions through workshops that span various disciplines.